Learning Journal SBI4U

February 1, 2021:  

“The most worrying mutations in five emerging coronavirus variants”  

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-most-worrying-mutations-in-five-emerging coronavirus-variants/ 

There are many different variants that have emerged in various countries such as England,  South Africa and Brazil. This surprised scientists as other coronaviruses such as seasonal  influenza does not have significant mutations. Some mutations, such  as the one from the UK, is  30-70% more transmissible than the original variant. People who got the original strain of the  coronavirus were infected with the South African variant due to antibodies inability to  neutralize it, which may cause the vaccine for the original strain to become ineffective with  preventing cases with this variant. However, at the date of writing this article summary,  most vaccines are seeming to work against the new  variants. Most of the mutations express themselves as changes in the spike protein which binds  to cellular receptors to infect them.  

February 3, 2021:  

“Human activity animals to move 70% further to survive”  

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/02/210201113602.htm 

Activities that cause the biggest impact to whether animals have to move are military activity,  building oil pipelines or hunting. These changes in migration can lead to reduced health of the  animal pack, reduced reproduction rates and even extinction in the local area. It’s advised that  the knowledge about animal movement be used to influence the design of structures so that it does  not disrupt them.  

April 1, 2021: 

“Breaking with bread” New Scientist, Jan. 9-15th 

Low carb diets such as keto are becoming increasingly popular due to their efficiency. People on  low carb diets lose 4.4 % of their body fat after a year of following the diet compared to people  on low fat diets who lose 2.5 %. People who are on low carb diets tend to eat fewer calories  due to them feeling fuller than those eating carbs. Eating proteins and fat instead of  carbohydrates also reduces the spike in glucose in the bloodstream which triggers fat storage. 

April 6, 2021:

“‘Zombie’ genes? Research shows some genes come to life in the brain after death” Science  Daily, Mar. 23 

In certain cells, such as glial cells, a type of inflammatory cell in the brain, show increased  expression after death. The research found 80 % of genes remained active 24 hours after the  person had died. The genes that regulated neuron function and memory and thinking degraded  hours after death. The ‘zombie’ genes increased activity after death, peaking at 12 hours after  death. 

April 7, 2021: 

“Structural biology opens new perspectives for treating psychiatric disorders”  https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2021-04/embl-sbo040621.php , Apr. 6 

The amino acid glycine is known for being a neurotransmitter in the brain. Researchers know the  structure of glycine and have now determined the structure of  the Glycine Transporter 1  Inhibitor that could  increase the concentration of Glycine in the neuronal cell membrane. Researchers want to investigate the effect of whether increased Glycine in the neuronal synapses can be an effective treatment for schizophrenia however this is not currently in use for patients. 

April 8, 2021: 

“Neanderthal ancestry identifies oldest modern human genome” https://phys.org/news/2021- 04-neanderthal-ancestry-oldest-modern-human.html , Apr. 7 

After humans left Africa 50 000 years ago, neanderthals and humans interbred in the Near East  (a region comprising of Western Asia, Turkey and Egypt). Humans who left Africa have between  2-3% neanderthal genes. Scientists found the oldest human genome in Zlatý kůň originally found in Czechia had long strands of neanderthal in the genome. It is said that her DNA is  around 45 000 years old and that she was part of the population before it split between Asia  and Europe. 

April 20, 2021:  

“Unusual fossil reveals last meal of prehistoric pollinator”  

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210412142738.htm , Apr. 12  

The pollinator fossil was a Cretaceous beetle meaning it was from the Cretaceous geological  period 145-66 million years ago. The scientist discovered that the fossil is 98 million years old  and lived in the Burmese rainforest and is part of the flower beetle family. Its ancestors now  live in parts of Australia as short winged flower beetles.  

April 22, 2021:  

“expert reaction to cases of variant B.1.617 (the ‘Indian Variant’) being investigated in the UK”  https://www.sciencemediacentre.org/expert-reaction-to-cases-of-variant-b-1-617-the-indian variant-being-investigated-in-the-uk/?cli_action=1619123120.67 , Apr. 19  

The first case of the B.1.617 variant was detected on October 5, 2020. Although this  variant is being called the Indian variant, scientists do not know where it first originated. The new  variant contains some of the same mutations (like P681R) with other variants of concern such  as the UK variant. This new variant is currently under investigation and will be identified as a variant of concern if either the transmissibility or severity has increased, there is a decrease in efficiency  of public health measures like vaccinations for people, or no immunity from the natural infection.  

April 28, 2021:  

“How rich countries are making the pandemic last longer”  

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2ty2J0s2W0c , Apr. 28  

In January 2021, 16 % of the world’s population (richer countries) had half of the world’s  vaccine doses. Before vaccines against the Covid-19 virus were developed, rich countries like  the US and Canada invested large amounts of money in vaccine companies like Moderna with a  deal that they would get a certain amount of vaccines delivered to their country if they were  successful. As of March 2021 Canada had secured 316 million doses, enough to give each citizen  8.7 doses. Poorer nations like Peru could not afford to take a risk in investing in a vaccine  company if there was no guarantee that the company would be able to develop vaccines.  Poorer nations ended up buying vaccines once they had already been developed meaning they  are at the end of the line for when they will receive their vaccines. This inequality means that in  countries where very few people have been vaccinated, Covid-19 can continue to spread and  new variants that are more transmissible and that may be more resistant to the vaccine.  

May 25, 2021:  

“Gypsy moth caterpillars ‘virtually everywhere’ in SW Ontario, expert says”  https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-sarnia-lambton-shores-gypsy-moths 1.6037086#:~:text=Science- 

,Gypsy%20moth%20caterpillars%20'virtually%20everywhere'%20in%20SW%20Ontario%2C%20 expert,to%20regions%20across%20Southern%20Ontario. , May 22 

Gypsy moths are an invasive species found in Canada mainly in Ontario and Quebec that were  brought here from Europe in the 1860s. They are problematic as one caterpillar in the larvae stage eats around  one square meter of foliage, which can damage or kill the tree. They can be dealt with by  spraying them with a biological. People can also put burlap underneath the tree as they hang  out there during the day and can be picked up and put in soapy water to kill them. Another  method to decrease their harm is to put duck tap around the trunk of the tree.  

June 15, 2021:  

“Frozen Microscopic Animals brought back to life after 24 000 Years” http://www.sci news.com/biology/frozen-bdelloid-rotifers-siberian-permafrost-09745.html , June 9th 

Organisms are able to survive many thousands of years in subzero temperatures. The  researchers in this report were able to recover small animals called rotifers from 24 000 years ago. They can stay alive after they are frozen. The researchers stated that this was a big step forward as a  discovery,  as we now know that complex organisms with a gut and brain and not just single celled organisms can survive long periods of being frozen.  

“Anti-inflammatory effects of omega-3 fatty acids could help reduce depression” 

Researchers tested the effects of high doses of three different kinds of omega-3 fatty acids on people with depression. The researchers found that the omega-3’s ability to be anti-inflammatory helped reduce depression in the patients who took it as depression has been  shown to cause higher levels of inflammation in the body. The patients that took them  experienced a drop in depressive symptoms by 64-71%. The omega-3’s ability to reduce  symptoms is thought to be because their lipid mediators are used to protect the brain from  inflammation.  

“Why so many Covid-19 variants are showing up now” 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ha6yUxze1vk&t=320s , June 16 

When a mutation occurs in the virus’ RNA it becomes a variant. This occurs for example in  seasonal influenza where every year the virus mutates and creates a new form and new flu  shots have to be developed. The mutations that happened/ are happening with Covid-19  happen all the time and often have a neutral or negative effect on transmission and severity,  however some mutations like B117 from England had an increased ability to infect people than  the previous strain and began to take over causing us to notice it. The longer a virus is  around and the more it infects people the more chance it has to cause random mutations.  These variants are a cause for concern as the immunity from the vaccines are not as effective  against them.  

June 18, 2021:  

“Dogs’ Skills for Cooperating with Humans are Biologically Prepared, Study Says”  http://www.sci-news.com/biology/dogs-biologically-prepared-social-skills-09729.html , June 4 

Adult dogs are more likely to look for humans for help when there’s danger as opposed to  wolves who do things independently. Although puppies don’t seem to engage as much in social  behavior they still understand what it means when humans are social towards them.  

“UO biologists are using zebrafish to study COVID-19 effects”  

https://around.uoregon.edu/content/uo-biologists-are-using-zebrafish-study-covid-19-effects ,  June 14  

Biologists are using zebrafish to study how underlying health conditions make the short and  long term effects of COVID-19 worse because the fish have the same cellular components that  viruses use to infect humans,  as well as the same biological mechanisms that cause these  underlying health conditions and, in addition,  share 80% of disease genes with humans. The study should  help us understand why and how this coronavirus disproportionately affects people with  diabetes, high blood pressure and obesity.  

“Excess nitrogen puts butterflies at risk” 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210617133804.htm , June 17  

Researchers in Switzerland wanted to understand the effects nitrogen from agriculture and air  pollution has on the diversity of butterflies. Previous research had been done related to the  nitrogen in the soil and plant diversity and had shown the more nitrogen in the soil the less  plant diversity – the researchers concluded this to be true for butterflies as well. The diversity 

of the plants and amount of nitrogen have a direct effect on the diversity of the butterfly  population as some species of butterflies require certain types of plants in order to survive.  

“Seabird eggs contaminated with cocktail of plastic additives” 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210616191528.htm , June 16  

The study was conducted in England on herring gull eggs and showed that phthalates, an  additive in most plastics,  was found in the egg. This is problematic as these plastic additives are oxidative and cause oxidative stress,  potentially damage  the cells in the eggs,  cause  lipid damage as well as  less vitamin E in the eggs. The presence of these chemicals means that they  will unfortunately most likely bio accumulate up the food chain.  

“Bats in Switzerland harbor diverse viruses, some potentially zoonotic” 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210616154252.htm , June 16  

This study was completed to better understand what viruses bats carry in order to better  prevent outbreaks from new viruses occurring, as  happened with COVID-19. They tested  the stool and took samples from organs to search the DNA and RNA. They found viruses from 39 different families with 16 of them being known to infest vertebrates.  The researchers also found that most of the viruses that infect humans do not jump directly from the  bat to the human but often infect another animal before later infecting the human. 

“African great apes to suffer massive range loss in next 30 years” 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/06/210607161000.htm , June 7  

A new study was published that states that the impacts of the climate crisis, increased human  population and land-use changes will cause a massive decrease in Africa’s great apes which  include gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos. The paper indicates in a best case scenario,  apes would lose 85% of their range by 2050, while in a worst case scenario they would lose 94%.  

“Blue-eyed humans have one common ancestor” 

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/01/080130170343.htm , Jan. 31 2008  

Originally all humans had brown eyes, however a mutation in the genome occurred 6-10 000  years ago turned off the gene that produces large amounts of melanin in the eyes, causing it to  cause less. There are variations in melanin in individuals with green and brown eyes, however  individuals with blue eyes have a very narrow range suggesting that all people with blue eyes  have the same common ancestor. 

Indigenous Studies - Current and Relevant Issues by Reily Ford

 Current Indigenous Issues in the Media 

1.CBC News investigated 34 cases across Canada involving the death or disappearance of Indigenous women that authorities claim were not the result of foul play. In each case, the women's families have stated that they do not agree with the police findings. They imply that murder may be involved. CBC News discovered evidence in many of the cases pointing to suspicious circumstances, unexplained bruises, and other anomalies.

2. With a disproportionate number of their neighbors in prison, on parole, or at risk, the world's Indigenous communities face yet another pressing issue. According to statistics, the percentage of Indigenous people in conflict with the justice system is extremely high, and in many places, those numbers may be on the rise. In recent years, the issue has received a great deal of attention in Canada. According to the Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics, Indigenous people account for approximately 19% of federal prisoners, while they account for only about 3% of the general population. Between 1997 and 2000, Indigenous people were ten times more likely than non-Indigenous people to be charged with homicide. Between 1996 and 2004, the proportion of Indigenous people in Canadian prisons increased by 22%, while the general prison population decreased by 12%. Disparities are equally visible in similar societies. 

3.Members of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) presented 94 Calls to Action in June 2015, with the goal of “redressing the legacy of residential schools and advancing the process of Canadian reconciliation” with Indigenous peoples. Months later, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau reaffirmed his government's commitment to implementing each and every one of them. How many of those Calls to Action have been fully implemented six years later? Based on information from government documents, CBC's Beyond 94, and research conducted by Ryerson University's Yellowhead Institute, Christopher Nardi of the National Post compiled a list of all the recommendations that have been completely implemented (13), those for which the government has taken some steps (60), and those for which no real steps have been taken (21).

Research on a current environmental issue Mercury Poisoning at Grassy Narrows 

Back in the 1960’s and early 1970’s a chemical plant dumped around 10 tons of toxic mercury into a river up stream from Grassy Narrows First Nations, polluting socially significant fish the local area residents rely on for food. More than once, neglecting to make a move to tidy up the stream, ensuing governments have exposed local area individuals to 50 years of devastating wellbeing impacts, including early demise due to Mercury poisoning. In 2019,  the government finally decided to start a fund to begin construction on a Mercury Care Home. I think  governments need to finally put an end to all of their suffering by giving the residents of Grassy Narrows  the aid and compensation they deserve.  After so many years they could build more than one care center or use “Canada’s well established programs to identify, assess, and remediate contaminations” as said by the government but they choose not to do anything about it as they continue to  leave it as a back burner problem.

Bob Boyer and His Work

Bob Boyer's work used to be mainly abstract pieces painted on rawhide containers known as parfleches. When he released A Small Pox Issue, 1983 his work started to become more  anti-colonial and political. He also changed from canvas to light gray cotton flannel blankets. I think this piece symbolizes the spread of the disease throughout different colonies. 

James Bay Region Cree and Inuit Fight for their rights

Sovereignty was a problem in this area in the 1970’s because the Quebec Government tried to go over the heads of all Indigenous  groups to expand the province's energy potential by building hydroelectric dams. The Cree and Inuit People did not want this to happen when they found out so with the help of the Indians of Quebec Association(IQA) they attempted to talk with the government to voice their concerns. The Cree and the IQA joined forces with the Northern Quebec Inuit Association when the government refused to address the matter and insisted on building the dams (NQIA). They launched legal action in November 1972 to slow down the project and force the province to negotiate. After a lengthy trial, Judge Albert Malouf issued his decision to the Superior Court on November 15, 1973. He ruled in favor of Indigenous peoples and demanded that the provincial government halt dam construction, recognize unceded Indigenous rights, and negotiate in good faith. Despite the intended effect, the ruling was quickly suspended by Quebec's court of appeal. The Cree's relationship with the IQA deteriorated until the Cree disassociated themselves from the organization and formed their own national network, the Grand Council of the Crees of Quebec. In the summer of 1974, the IQA walked away from the table, and the province, the Cree, and the Inuit reached a tentative agreement.

References 

1. https://nationalpost.com/news/much-work-remains-on-the-truth-and-reconciliation-commissions-94-calls-to-action

2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bannock_(food)

3. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/discrimination-aboriginals-native-lands-canada

4. https://www.pfoac.com/artists/49-bob-boyer/works/1272-bob-boyer-a-smallpox-issue-1983/

5. https://sk-arts.ca/menu/news-and-resources/features/734-10-works-from-our-permanent-collection.html

6. Small Pox Issue link address: https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fartlogic-res.cloudinary.com%2Fw_1600%2Ch_1600%2Cc_limit%2Cf_auto%2Cfl_lossy%2Cq_auto%2Fartlogicstorage%2Fpfoac%2Fimages%2Fview%2Ffc3e28a0fafa1168096cd30b10fd2cd1j%2Fpierre-fran-oisouelletteartcontemporaininc.-bob-boyer-a-smallpox-issue-1983.jpg&imgrefurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pfoac.com%2Fartists%2F49-bob-boyer%2Fworks%2F&tbnid=Zju56RsbW3GeuM&vet=12ahUKEwiqytyf46vxAhWXAp0JHRsrAtIQMygAegQIARAq..i&docid=dqVgSGsUvw3D9M&w=1040&h=1600&q=a%20small%20pox%20issue%20bob%20boyer&ved=2ahUKEwiqytyf46vxAhWXAp0JHRsrAtIQMygAegQIARAq

7. https://www.routledge.com/Defending-the-Land-Sovereignty-and-Forest-Life-in-James-Bay-Cree-Society/Niezen/p/book/9780205651085

8. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/james-bay-and-northern-quebec-agreement

9. https://www.historymuseum.ca/blog/when-cree-and-inuit-transformed-modern-canada/

World Environmental Issues by K. Schmidt

 World Environmental Issues

1. Poaching:

Throughout history, elephants have been hunted and killed in inhumane manners for their ivory. Human desires for the money receivable, as the price for tusks is copious. These tusks are manufactured into a variety of products such as piano keys and decorative objects. Though many advocacies have been shared, human desire for these luxuries outweighs efforts against it. 

    In 1989, the ban on international trade was presented after years of unprecedented poaching. It was estimated that in the 1980’s, over 100 000 elephants were being killed every year. The ban allowed some herds to recover, especially if they were being protected, but a surge of illegal ivory tracking and poaching has risen over the past few years, drastically declining the forest elephant and the savannah elephant populations. There are many sophisticated ways of poaching due to it being a globally relative issue. The current methods of poaching have surpassed just using rifles. Poacher’s now have well-organized criminal networks who use helicopters, night vision supplies, tranquilizers, and silencers to discreetly kill these animals. Promisingly, in 2016 the United States implemented a near complete ban on poaching, followed by the United Kingdom, Singapore, Hong Kong, along with other ivory markets. Inspite of these bans, poaching is still a prominent issue. Currently, there are many organizations such as the International Anti-Poaching Foundation, Wildlife Conservation Society, Kenya Wildlife Services, and WWF (World Wildlife Fund), a distinguished international non-governmental organization advocating for the termination of poaching, among various other issues.

    Poaching is an awful, inhumane hunting tactic that needs a permanent ban. It will take several efforts and a fair amount of time to completely diminish the act of poaching, however it is possible if governments and organizations take action. Thousands of elephants are being hunted, and it is time for their species to be able to exist for the coming years.

2. Coral Reefs:

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. They are mainly located in parts of both the Indian and Pacific ocean, the Red sea, among a few other locations. An estimated 500 million people earn their living from the fishing stocks and tourism opportunities coral reefs provide. The tiny animals that give rise to reefs are even offering hope for new drugs to treat cancer and other diseases. 

    There are many ongoing issues and activities that contribute  to the destruction of coral reefs. Warming waters, coral mining, pollution, overfishing, ocean acidification, among other activities are the reason for these coral reefs dying. The destruction of these reefs have become so severe, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the United Nations released a statement remarking on the world’s coral reefs; “Even if global warming is limited to 2 degrees Celsius, almost all reefs will ‘degrade’.” The rapid decline and loss of these valuable, complex ecosystems have significant economic, social, and environmental consequences around the world. It is evident that our reefs need to become healthy because if they don’t, mass job losses will occur, there will be a rapid erosion of coastlines which may lead to the submerging of small island countries, 25% of marine life will be extinct or without habitat, coastal fishing industries would collapse, coastlines will take a battering, less oxygen, as well as other catastrophes. However, many teams and organizations globally are working to save the reefs entirely. Organizations such as Coral Reef Alliance, NOAA, and Ocean Conservancy have taken action in preserving and saving coral reefs. They are doing so by improving reef management so those responsible for the creation and enforcement of protected areas have the tools and financial support they need, implementing satellite technology to detect harmful algal blooms that can smother reefs and to monitor elevated sea surface temperatures, water conservation, and several other methods of preservation. Thus, saving these reefs is crucial to marine life’s existence, as well as our own. 

3. Water Pollution

Water pollution is the contamination of bodies of water, usually inflicted by human activities. This includes lakes, rivers, streams, oceans, aquifers, and groundwater to the point where toxic substances interfere with beneficial use of the water or with the functioning of ecosystems. 

    Water pollution can happen several ways, one prominent way being city sewage and industrial waste discharge. Other ways this occurs is from the chemicals and pesticides on agriculture, radioactive waste, and oil spills. When these  process happens, pollutants, such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, fertilizers, pharmaceutical products, nitrates, phosphates, plastics, fecal wastes, and radioactive substances enter the water. Not only does this affect the ecosystems, but the pollutants also travel into groundwater, which may end up in our household water system, contaminating the water. If this water is consumed, diseases and other illnesses such as diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and poliomyelitis may occur, which kills more than 500 000 people a year. Degradation and destruction of biodiversity, contamination of food chains, lack of potable water, and infant mortality are all results of contact with polluted water. There are several ways to reduce and prevent the pollution of water like reducing CO2 emissions, reducing the use of chemical pesticides and nutrients on crops, reducing and safe treatment wastewa of ter, reducing the use of single use plastics, and encouraging sustainable fishing. Organizations such as Pacific Institute, World Water Council, Project WET, among several others that are helping the prevention of water pollution by informing populations about the issues well as advocating for clean water, allowing millions of people to have access to fresh water, implementing large scale rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharging systems, reducing water use, and much more. It has become increasingly evident that as a whole, the World needs to be more educated on the subject and begin doing the things these organizations are advocating for.

4. Climate Change

Climate change is the act of large-scale shifts in weather patterns driven by human incentives like emissions of greenhouse gases. Climate change has several characteristics. Thousands of the studies conducted all  come to the same conclusion ; there is marked increase of temperature at the Earth's surface as well as in the oceans and atmosphere. In addition , glaciers are melting, there is a drastic increase of high temperatures and heavy precipitation, longer growing seasons and more frequent wildfires. Sea’s are rising and warming, oceans are becoming more acidic, there are recurring floods along the U.S. coastline. It is becoming so severe that species are migrating to places where they never originated. 

    Most of this is induced by human activity. Burning coal, oil, and gas (producing emissions like carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide), deforestation, modes of transportation, increased livestock production/farming, emission of fluorinated gasses, and fertilizers containing nitrogen are just a few of the causes for global warming or climate change. If global warming continues without the world acting upon such issue(s), risks of flooding increases phenomenally, coral bleaching- resulting in them being severely degraded, an ice-free Arctic, extreme heat waves, plants and animals at risk of losing over half their habitats, severe forest fires, frequent and prolonged droughts, melted mountain glaciers (skiing is impossible), and expanded deserts, just to name a few will be the consequences. 

    Recently, thousands of scientists have concluded a few major things that will potentially  help cure our world. Shifting energy production, curbing short-lived pollutants, investing in nature-based solutions, transforming food production, developing carbon-free economies, keeping fossil fuels in the ground, and limiting population growth are tasks needed to be done in order for Earth to regain health. Other approaches to reducing climate change are recycling CO2 and Ocean Greening. 

    It is beyond evident that our World needs saving immediately. With scientists, governments, and thousands of organizations, it is definitely possible to redeem the health our globe once had. If climate change continues without help l, our World will degrade into a state of no return.

What is CSA

What is Community Service Agriculture (CSA) at FourBFarms?

FourBFarms runs weekly and biweekly organic produce boxes which produce varies depending on the season. For example she sells asparagus and rhubarb in May (spring time) and potatoes and squash in October.

The farm has a large greenhouse which has grows most of her tomatoes as well as pepper plants, which is heated during the winter by the excess heat from the biogas digester they installed there.   

Why is it important to support CSA?

-Better for the environment as produce is sourced locally reduces GHGs (greenhouse gas emissions) released from transportation from the farm to the supermarket

-Is more fresh and therefor healthier

-Supports the local economy and develops a relationship between the farmer and the customer

-Often ensures more money is going to the farmer and the people working at the farm as it is bought directly from them and not through a large company 

-Supports crop diversity, since everything in the box is a different type of produce it is better for the soil health than monoculture.

Sources:

https://www.fourbf.com/

Sustainability at Home

 Sustainability at Home

Ever since I can remember, my family has always taken some practice in sustainability at home. For decades, there has been an ongoing issue with sustainability globally. Sustainability has become such an environmentally prominent issue that the United Nations General Assembly formed an organization called the SDG’s (Sustainable Development Goals), which is a group of 17 interlinked global goals. 

    For years, my family has invested in purchasing chickens. I never expected chickens to be such a key factor in providing sustainability. Agricultural businesses where they tend chickens to lay eggs are nonetheless, a nightmare. With cages stacked full of chickens, row upon row, sustainability is not present. These farms are considered concentrated animal-feeding operations, and according to the U.S EPA, they contribute to being a significant source of water pollution. However, my family only ever has a handful of chickens, giving them plenty of room in their pen. Along with traditional feed (pellets), we give them tons of actual food. In our house we have a small compost bin which is completely dedicated to chicken feed. After every meal, we throw our scraps into the bin, usually consisting of vegetables, fruits, sandwich scraps, etc. I cannot remember the last time I put food into the garbage. With this clean diet, our chickens provide us the freshest, best eggs.

    Another way my family lives sustainably is we never purchase cases of water bottles. We used to, but it was clear that the amount of plastic bottles used did not provide enough water and the use of non-reusable water bottles needed in such large quantities is bad for the environment, even when recycled. Rather, my parents bought a water dispenser where we place a single nine liter bottle of water. After the water is completely emptied, we bring them back to a store where they can send them to its manufacturer and they can become reused. This reduces plastic waste substantially, and along with that, it keeps our water very cold at all times. 

    The final thing my family does which is deemed sustainable was implementing geothermal energy for our house. Geothermal energy’s source provide an unlimited amount of heat as it is generated by the Earth’s core. The energy is extracted without burning fossil fuels such as coal, gas, or oil. It is a renewable energy source, and leaves a very low carbon footprint. In addition, you have access to it 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. 

    In conclusion, I believe my family does a great job at being environmentally sustainable. It is very important that the world becomes more sustainable so the Earth can remain producing clean air, and keep it healthy.

Article Reviews: SCH4C

 Article Reviews 

The article titled “Phosphorus for Earth’s earliest life may have been forged by lightning” talks about how the phosphorus that kick-started life as we know it billions of years ago, may have come from lightning here on earth and not from meteorites. Phosphorus was and still is a crucial element that connects all life. It is present in both DNA and RNA. Scientists thought that the phosphorus used to create the first strands of DNA and RNA came from a mineral called schreibersite. This mineral is typically found in meteorites but analysis from recent lightning strikes suggests that the phosphorus could have been made on earth. When lighting strikes the ground, it can form a glass-like substance called fulgurite. Fulgurite contains small amounts of schreibersite. After a significant lightning strike in Illinois, scientists analyzed the composition of the fulgurite produced and calculated that 0.4 percent of the total material produced by the lightning was schreibersite. Using this new found knowledge, scientists looked back at the weather patterns of earth from 4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago. They believe that there could have been enough lighting strikes on earth to have produced enough fulgurite which could have contained enough phosphorus to aid in the beginning of life. This information is also very significant because if our planet was able to produce life based on its own supply of lightning storms, it gives hope to future earth-like planets. This means that instead of hoping a bunch of meteorites that contain a lot of phosphorus hit a specific planet, there's a chance enough lighting can create the same environment.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/phosphorus-earth-earliest-life-forged-lightning-chemistry

This article titled “Zinc-air batteries are typically single-use. A new design could change that.” It talks about a potentially revolutionary new battery that can be almost infinitely recharged, and is much safer and cheaper to use. To first understand this new technology we have to understand how a typical zinc-air battery works. A zinc-air battery contains a zinc anode and a porous cathode separated by an electrolyte. This electrolyte is a high pH substance that contains ingredients like potassium hydroxide. Oxygen from the air enters the cathode and reacts with the water in the electrolyte to form hydroxide. Hydroxide formed at the cathode surface travels to the anode and reacts with the zinc. This reaction between the hydroxide and zinc is what creates the electricity. An issue with this type of battery is that the reaction is not easily reversed. This makes it difficult to recharge the battery which contributes to waste in the environment. The electrolyte used in typical zinc-air batteries also degrades the cathode and anode. To solve these issues a researcher decided to switch out the electrolyte for an electrolyte that contains water-repellent ions. These ions stick to the cathode which prevents water from the electrolyte from reacting with incoming oxygen at the cathode surface. This means that zinc ions from the anode can travel to the cathode and react directly with oxygen from the air. This enables the battery to be recharged. In one experiment researchers were able to recharge this new type of zinc-air battery 320 times over the span of 160 hours. In the future these new types of batteries could be used in electric cars and could potentially power cities.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/zinc-air-batteries-single-use-new-design-rechargeable

In this article titled “Plastic drinking water pipes exposed to high heat can leak hazardous chemicals” talks about a worrying trend that has been happening over the past decade in California. Increased levels of carcinogens have been present after large wildfires. After 2 separate fires, one in 2017 and the other in 2018, California's Water Management facilities found unsafe levels of benzene and other volatile organic compounds present. Scientists suspected that it was the plastic drinking water pipes that had been exposed to extreme heat that was the source of these dangerous chemicals. After an experiment that exposed common plastic pipes to temperatures ranging from 200° C to 400° C found that out of  the 11 types of pipes 10 of them released varying amounts of benzene and volatile organic compounds. In some cases more than a hundred different chemicals were released. After this startling evidence scientists concluded that the underground water pipes we're being exposed to extreme heat from the fires, breaking down and releasing these harmful chemicals. Benzene exposure can cause serious health problems including skin and throat irritation, dizziness and after long-term exposure even leukaemia. The only foreseeable solution would be to switch these plastic pipes to heat resistant metal pipes. This would cost a great deal of money and be extremely bothersome to residents. For now experts recommend households test their drinking water after forest fires occur to ensure that they are not ingesting harmful substances. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plastic-drinking-water-pipes-high-heat-wildfire-hazardous-chemicals

In this article titled “A new iron-based catalyst converts carbon dioxide into jet fuel” it talks about a potentially revolutionary new catalyst that converts the CO2 in the atmosphere into usable jet fuel. Unlike cars, commercial airplanes cannot carry batteries that would be big enough to power them for an entire flight, so electrical powered planes are currently out of the question. The air travel industry however, has a significant carbon footprint. The air travel industry currently makes up 12% of all transportation-related CO2 emissions. This is why creating a more sustainable, environmentally friendly way to fuel airplanes is an extremely valuable discussion.  Catalysts typically use expensive materials, but this new type of catalyst uses inexpensive ingredients such as iron. The way it works is the catalyst helps the carbon in CO2 separate from the oxygen molecules and link with hydrogen in the atmosphere, this forms the hydrocarbon molecule that makes up jet fuel. The leftover oxygen atoms from the CO2 joins with the hydrogen atoms and creates water. There was a very exciting experiment done by a chemist at the University of Oxford. They used a small reaction chamber set at 300° Celsius and pressurized to 10 times the air pressure at sea level. After 20 hours the catalyst converted 38% of the carbon dioxide present into new chemical products. About 48% of those products were jet fuel hydrocarbons. The other by-products were things like ethylene and propylene which can be used to make plastic. https://www.sciencenews.org/article/new-iron-based-catalyst-converts-carbon-dioxide-into-jet-fuel

Article Reviews

This article titled “50 years ago, scientists caught their first glimpse of amino acids from outer space” talks about a very exciting event that happened 1969 in Victoria, Australia. Researchers found evidence of amino acids in a meteorite that fell in Victoria, Australia on September 28th, 1969. The reason this was so exciting was because it suggests that the building blocks used to create proteins can and have been produced outside of Earth. Amino acids are so important because they are  the main ingredient in DNA, RNA and so many other compounds. Twelve  years later, in 1971 researchers found that the Australian meteorite contained primarily glycine. Since then, there have been other instances where amino acids and other chemical precursors have been found in rocks that come from space. A recent discovery found compounds called nucleobases and different types of sugar in meteorites. In addition they have seen glycine in the atmosphere of comet 67P. These findings show promise that there could be life elsewhere in the universe. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/50-years-ago-scientists-first-glimpse-amino-acids-outer-space

This article titled “A new portable device can reveal a  chili pepper’s heat” talks about a small portable device called the Chilica-pod which can be plugged into any smartphone and read the exact amount of capsaicin present in any sample of pepper. Capsaicin is one of the chemical compounds that make peppers taste hot. The more capsaicin a pepper has, the hotter it will taste. The device is said to be extremely accurate and can detect micromoles of capsaicin. The way it works is a drop of liquid from a pepper is collected and mixed with ethanol to form a solution, this solution is placed onto the sensor. The sensor is made up of stacks of graphene sheets, the capsaicin that is present in the solution triggers the movement of electrons in the graphene. The more capsaicin present in the solution, the more the electrons will move making more electrical current. The pod registers the electrical current generated by the solution and once you plug it into a smartphone, the information is then analyzed in an app. The small device can detect capsaicin levels as low as 0.37 micromoles per litre of solution. One advantage of using this device is it does not use the system of Scoville heat units. The Scoville heat unit is a debated way of measuring heat and is determined by a group of human taste testers. This method allows for a lot of discretion between taste testers and it is not very accurate. Using the Chilica-pod will hopefully generate accurate readings of heat and be used by avid hot pepper eaters or even farmers that need to test their crops. There was one criticism by a plant geneticist and chilli breeder saying that; capsaicin is just one of at least 24 compounds that give peppers its heat. The scientist was hoping in the future that maybe the device could read all 24 of the compounds to truly have an accurate understanding of how hot the peppers would be. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/portable-device-chili-pepper-heat-capsaicin

This article titled “heating deltamethrin may help it kill pesticide-resistant mosquitoes” talks about an interesting phenomenon that has been observed where deltamethrin, a common insecticide used around the world to help stop the spread of mosquito borne diseases, was seen to be about 10 times more deadly when heated up. There are mosquito species all around the world that are showing resistance to deltamethrin and other similar compounds. Researchers all around the world are trying to find new compounds to help reduce the spread of mosquito borne diseases such as malaria. Malaria kills over 400,000 people each year and so  the search for new insecticides is never ending. There are two ways used to heat the deltamethrin. The first is to heat it to 150° C in an oil bath for 5 minutes or by putting it in a 700- watt microwave for 5 minutes. After essentially vaporizing the chemical, the actual structure of the crystals change. In the original spray, the crystals have a very random pattern and look like a bunch of layered flakes on top of each other. The melted deltamethrin crystals look like a starburst pattern when cooled to room temperatures. The chemical bonds between the melted deltamethrin molecules are not as strong as the original structure is. This means when a mosquito lands on a dusting of the melted crystals it's much easier for the deltamethrin molecules to be absorbed mostly through the insect's feet. Researchers used two different types of mosquito species to test the new and original forms of the deltamethrin. The first is the A. quadrimaculatus species of mosquito that spreads malaria. The other is the A. aegypti species of mosquito which can transmit life-threatening diseases such as Zika and Dengue. The new version of deltamethrin knocked out about half of exposed A. quadrimaculatus mosquitoes within 24 minutes but when the same amount of mosquitoes were exposed to the original spray, it took nearly five hours for around half of them to be knocked out. When it came to the A. aegypti mosquito it took only 21 minutes for the new deltamethrin spray to knock out about half of the sample while it took over 3 hours for the original spray to knock out the same amount. This is still very early days for the new and improved deltamethrin. The two types of mosquitoes used in the experiments are not native to Africa or any part of Asia.In the future, it would be valuable to test the 6 major malaria spreading mosquito species in South Asia. It is also unknown if the increased toxicity of deltamethrin is safe for humans or wildlife. The experiments also did not include mosquito species that are already resistant to deltamethrin. In conclusion there is still a long way to go before this new form of deltamethrin can be used. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/heat-deltamethrin-pesticide-resistant-mosquitoes-insecticide

This article titled “Smoke for Australian fires rose higher into the ozone layer than ever before” talks about the recent wildfire season that happened in Australia from 2019- 2020. The fires produced so much smoke that it was rising and reaching new heights in the atmosphere. The fires were burning from December 29 to January 4. They produced what is called a pyrocumulonimbus cloud. These pyrocumulonimbus clouds produced fire-fuelled thunderstorms. These thunderstorms launched 300,000 to 900000 metric tons of smoke into the atmosphere. This was more than any recorded fire. One particular jet of smoke rose to a record breaking altitude and demonstrated some interesting behavior in relation to the wind. It was seen spinning and wrapping around itself in a spiral motion. This behavior has never been observed before. At its peak, the smoke cloud was roughly a thousand kilometres in width. This made it one of the largest wildfire smoke plumes that satellites have ever seen in the stratosphere. Researchers all the way in Washington were observing the pyrocumulonimbus cloud using satellites and weather balloons. The most shocking thing was in less than two months the plume rose from 16 km off the ground to 31km. The dark particles from the smoke absorbs sunlight and heated up the clouds, making it rise even higher. Clouds rising through the stratosphere brought with it large amounts of water and carbon monoxide. These high concentrations of gases in the stratosphere were several hundred percent higher than normal concentrations. The danger with this is the ozone-rich air  that normally occupies the stratosphere gets pushed out of the way. The sun warmed smoke also triggers chemical reactions that destroy the ozone molecules. It is still unclear whether this huge pyrocumulunimbus cloud had any lasting effects on the world stratosphere. As devastating as this event was, it did allow scientists all around the world to observe the effects that large amounts of smoke have on the atmosphere. This is especially interesting because it validated a lot of the predictions scientists had made in regards to nuclear bombs and their effect on the atmosphere. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/smoke-australian-fires-rose-higher-ozone-layer-than-ever-before

Article Reviews 

This article titled ¨Can we make opioids less addicting?¨ explores the million-dollar question that is; can we make effective pain relievers while also not having it be addictive? Opioids are the most powerful painkillers that are used today but unfortunately they  are incredibly addicting. Tens of thousands of people all around the world die from opioid overdose each year. Opioids come from the white liquid in opium poppies. Drugs like morphine, oxycodone and heroin are also derived from opium poppies. There have been many attempts over the past century to try and come up with a new equally effective painkiller that is less addicting, but none have succeeded. In almost all cases, the new drug that once looked so promising actually created an even bigger problem and many more people became addicted. The way opioids work is they mimic pain-relieving chemicals called endorphins that your bodily body naturally produces. An opioid gets into your bloodstream and goes to your nervous system binding to opioid receptors in your brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves. When it binds to these opioid receptors it stops the brain from telling your body that you're feeling pain. This is why opioids are such an effective pain reliever but not why it's so addicting. Opioids cause your brain to release dopamine.  This is a type of neurotransmitter that is linked to the feeling of being rewarded. Dopamine makes us feel happy and is monitored by another type of neurotransmitter called GABA. GABA stands for gamma aminobutyric acid. In addition to blocking pain, opioids also block GABA from being released. This means that your body can produce as much dopamine as it wants without being regulated. This is why it is so addicting. The bottom line is there is no solution or adequate replacement for prescription opioids as of yet. Researchers have been trying to develop a type of vaccine that could stop the body from becoming addicted to the opioids but it's still early days.

https://scitechdaily.com/can-we-make-opioids-less-addictive-video/

This article titled ¨Rapid covid-19 testing from a suitcase¨ it talks about a promising new way to test people for covid-19 all out of a small compact suitcase. The test would only take 15 minutes to complete and holds 94% accuracy. A similar device was used in Guinea in 2015 during the Ebola outbreak. Researchers were hoping that this new device would go to countries that had limited resources and limited laboratory equipment. The main focus so far has been to implement this device in countries in Africa that do not meet proper research laboratory standards and don’t have the medical equipment necessary to carry out large scale testing. It also would eliminate the days of waiting that most people have to experience when doing  traditional coronavirus tests. The suitcase includes a diagnostic device, solar power supply, various regions, rubber gloves and RNA extracts. The test can be done almost anywhere,  so it has the advantage of being mobile. For the test you need a saliva sample or nasal swab and all the reagents can be used at room temperature. There are already several countries that have implemented this device including; Egypt, Ghana, Nigeria and Uganda. There's still some development needed to be done but if the evidence is as promising as the initial data suggests, you might be seeing a lot more of this little suitcase. 

https://scitechdaily.com/rapid-covid-19-testing-from-a-suitcase/

This article titled ¨Scientists invent new method for producing synthetic DNA¨  talks about a new technique that produces one of the building blocks necessary for DNA sequencing in a more efficient manner. DNA is chemically synthesized all the time. It is an extremely important ingredient that has many uses that include; laboratories, hospitals and even in identifying covid-19. Phosphoramidite are building blocks needed to produce DNA but they are extremely unstable and break quickly. A group of research scientists have developed a new patented way to quickly and efficiently manufacture phosphoramidite. The DNA sequences that are being produced are called oligonucleotides.  These are used for disease identification, the manufacturing of certain types of drugs and other medical and biotechnical applications. This means there is a very high demand for oligonucleotides. The best way to produce it is to have an efficient, automated way of producing these sequences. The oligonucleotides rely on the very unstable  Phosphoramidite which needs to be stored at -20 ° Celsius. Because the equipment used to synthesize DNA cannot be cooled down to that temperature, a lot of the compound goes to waste when being produced. It also normally takes up to 12 hours to manually synthesize phosphoramidite. The new method of producing phosphoramidite starts by using nucleosides and flushing them through solid resin. In short this method avoids the degradation of the phosphoramidite and can be produced on demand which means it does not have to be stored and subsequently damaged while in storage. 

https://scitechdaily.com/scientists-invent-new-method-for-producing-synthetic-dna/

In this article titled ¨Handheld MasSpec pen reveals Meat and Fish fraud in seconds¨ talks about a small Pen like device that can identify the source of a sample of meat in seconds. Meat and Fish fraud is a global problem. It costs consumers billions of dollars each year on top of making customers very unhappy. In some instances beef was being replaced with horse meat or cheaper fish was being sold as a premium fillets. Consumers began to question the reliability of the labels on the meat they were buying. There is a current molecular test to identify meat samples but it has to be performed at an off-site lab and you take hours to days to complete. There was a similar device made in the past that was compact and could be used on-site. There were two problems though, it destroyed the meat sample in the process or it would require some preparation before it could be sampled. This was not good enough. The new MasSpec device extracts small amounts of material from the samples surface and analyzes them on a mass spectrometer. The whole process takes around 15 seconds and does not harm the meat samples. Researchers tested this MasSpec pen against several different types of meat and it had a 100% accuracy at identifying the proteins. It also took 720 times faster than the current method. Researchers say they plan to expand this device to be able to identify more meat products.

https://scitechdaily.com/handheld-masspec-pen-reveals-meat-and-fish-fraud-in-seconds/

Article Reviews

This article titled ¨Citrus derivative makes transparent wood 100% renewable¨ talks about a new way of making transparent wood. Transparent wood is produced for many different applications including construction and interior design. Transparent wood can even hold thermal energy. The way you make wood transparent is to strip the wood of its lignin. The lignin is what gives wood its opaque look and what absorbs most of the light that hits the wood. Once all the lignin has been stripped from the wood it is very fragile and can break easily. Traditionally researchers have used a fossil-based polymer to coat the wood and give it its strength back. Scientists wanted to find a more environmentally friendly, sustainable solvent that can be applied to the wood that does not rely on fossil fuels. What they found was something called limonene acrylate, a monomer made from limonene. Limonene can be extracted from citrus waste like orange peels. This means research labs can work alongside orange juice factories and repurpose the orange waste and use it to make transparent wood. The limonene acrylate restores almost all transparency with little haze. It adds a lot of strength and even elasticity to the wood. Green chemistry is something everyone should keep in mind and there can be improvements done in every aspect of science to keep the earth happy.

https://scitechdaily.com/citrus-derivative-makes-transparent-wood-100-renewable/

This article titled ¨Nanoscale nutrients can protect plants from fungal diseases¨  talks about a revolutionary way of protecting plants. In the agricultural world, fungal diseases are one of your biggest enemies. Every crop that is grown is threatened by fungal diseases. Each year one third of the global harvest is destroyed by pathogenic fungus. Currently, farmers fumigate the soil with toxic chemicals that damage the land and kill any beneficial microbes in the earth. They also use fungicides but these are only effective short-term. The fungal diseases quickly evolved to be resistant to the fungicides. The nanoscale nutrients that this article talks about is a new way of strengthening crops with nutrients to help them fight against the pathogenic fungi. Researchers created nano sized packages filled with essential nutrients that boost the plants immune system. This boost triggers enzyme production that helps fight against fungal diseases. This method also does not introduce any synthetic chemicals. Researchers also discovered that plants may use a root-to-shoot-to-root  method of delivering nutrients. This means that any nutrients absorbed from the roots go up to the shoots and then circle back down to the roots. This means that the nanoparticles of nutrients can be applied directly to the leaves and will eventually be absorbed by the roots. This avoids delivering nutrients through the soil which is very ineffective; the chemicals break down in the soil or evaporate into the atmosphere. Researchers carried out tests on eggplant and tomato plants using metallic nanoparticles sprayed onto the leaves and shoots of young plants. The nanoparticle treated plants had elevated levels of nutrients and produced higher yields compared to plants given regular dissolved nutrients. According to the article these nano-nutrients are so effective because of their perfect size. They are thousands of times larger than dissolved nutrients particles that are typically given to plants. Because of their large surface area they dissolve more quickly than something that had larger molecules. They're also not too big that they don't dissolve all at once. These nano-nutrients gradually release over the course of a couple weeks, this gives the plant a longer period of time that it is protected. In addition to being able to customize the size of these particles, you can also decide what shape you want. Researchers found that thin copper oxide sheets were better than spherical copper nanoparticles at preventing a certain type of fungi in soybean plants. They were more effective because it released quicker and was stuck to the surface of the leaves better. As promising as this may sound there's still a long way to go before it can be used in large-scale agriculture. Though no trace amounts of the nanonutrients were found on the actual produce, it is still unknown what the effects are on the environment.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/nano-tech-nutrients-protect-plants-fungus-disease-food-agriculture

This article titled ¨A new technique could make some plastic trash compostable at home¨ talks about an enzyme that can eat biodegradable plastic. Some researchers have been adding enzymes to biodegradable plastic to try and make the breaking down process more efficient. What some people don't understand is just because something is called biodegradable does not mean it can be composted. You can still find biodegradable plastic among compost because it does not break down properly. In landfills, biodegradable plastics  do not break down because the conditions are not right. his means that the biodegradable plastic breaks down no faster than normal plastics. Using biodegradable plastic with polymer eating enzymes in it should accelerate the decomposition process. After some hurdles, a research group at Berkeley Laboratories created a perfect combination of ingredients. The ends of the plastic molecular chains are grabbed by the enzymes and eaten. They break up each individual chain link preventing microplastics from forming. Normally having enzymes in plastic makes them expensive and changes the physical properties of the plastic but this improved enzyme additive makes up as little as 0.02% of the entire plastic's weight. This means it does not change the strength and flexibility of the plastic. Unfortunately  this technology does not work on all types of plastic because molecular structure is varied but it's a promising start.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/plastic-compost-new-enzyme-technique-biodegradable

The article titled ¨Lightning may be an important source of air cleaning chemicals¨  talks about how lightning has been observed to produce air cleaning chemicals. After several observations done by storm chasing airplanes it was revealed that lightning can produce what are called air cleaning chemicals also called oxidants. Oxidants help clean the air by reaction with contaminants like methane and allowing them to be more easily rained out of Earth's atmosphere. Lightning produces nitric oxide which can lead to the formation of oxidants such as hydroxyl radicals. In 2012 NASA observed storm clouds over Colorado, Oklahoma and Texas. They observed that large amounts of hydroxyl radicals and another oxidant called hydroperoxyl radicals were being produced by the storm. After analyzing the air composition the combined concentration of the hydroxyl radicals and hydroperoxyl radicals reached up to thousands of parts per trillion. This is the highest concentration of hydroxyl radicals to be observed in the atmosphere.  The normal levels are only a few parts per trillion. At any given time there are around 1,800 lightning storms going on in the world. Researchers estimated that lightning could account for 2% to 16% of atmospheric hydroxyl radicals. This is extremely important information due to the rising levels of lightning storms occurring due to global warming. Understanding how lightning storms affect the atmosphere is extremely important for the future. 

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/lightning-storm-chemicals-air-clean-atmosphere-pollution

Article Review

In this article  entitled “Volcanic ash threatens Pompeii's buried murals” it talks about the concerning state of Pompeii's ancient murals. The city of Pompeii was buried under volcanic ash and rocks for more than fifteen hundred years before it was first discovered and excavation began. Researchers originally thought that the volcanic debris would preserve the remaining ruins. New research suggests that a type of material called pyroclasts can cause damage to the ruins when under certain conditions. When exposed to water pyroclasts leach fluoride ions. These charged ion particles can combine with other ions to form a salty crust on Pompeii's art. As the salt dissolves and recrystallizes it can alter the pigment in the art and create cracks. Researchers needed to prove that it was the pyroclasts that were responsible for the salt buildup. Because fluoride ions are very rare in the atmosphere they had to prove that they came from the volcanic spew. They tested volcanic ash and rocks and exposed them to water. When exposed to water fluoride ions began to be released. They found that the ion concentration from the volcanic ash could be enough to be responsible for the damage on Pompeii’s art. Researchers say that as long as the paintings and murals are safely buried underground and stay dry there should be no need for concern. Unfortunately groundwater and rainfall are always a factor. In the case of salt damage it's extremely important to start treating paintings as soon as possible once they are excavated. Researchers needed a way to test the paintings for fluoride ions on site. A research team developed a portable laser instrument that helps detect fluoride ions. It breaks down small amounts of limestone found on the painting surface which releases calcium. The calcium interacts with fluorine to create calcium fluoride which emits a distinguishable wavelength of light. If the light is detected that means that fluoride is present on the painting. Researchers say that the best way to approach the situation is simply by leaving the paintings underground. 

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/volcanic-ash-threatens-pompeiis-buried-murals/

In this article titled “Even tiny phytoplankton have microbiomes” it talks about the symbiotic relationship algae have with bacteria that live on their surface. According to this article half of the world's photosynthesis takes place in single-celled organisms called phytoplankton which float at the top of the ocean. Phytoplankton also form the base of the ocean's food chain. It was discovered that these tiny little algae have even smaller bacteria embedded in their exterior. Scientists refer to this as the phycosphere. The phycosphere and phytoplankton share a very intimate relationship. The two organisms exchange vital chemicals that help each other survive. This article provides an image of the algae species Coscinodiscus diatom which are 90 micrometres across. This is one tenth of the width of a ballpoint pen. In the image the one phytoplankton looks relatively huge compared to the tiny blue dots surrounding it. These tiny blue dots are each an individual bacteria cell. It's hard to imagine how small this really is. In addition to simply being a very interesting discovery, researchers want to focus on whether the phycosphere has an influence on algae blooms. The phytoplankton species that are responsible for these algae blooms seem to be aided or contracted by different bacteria that live around them. So the phycosphere might have a role in the formation of algae blooms. 

https://www.scientificamerican.com/gallery/even-tiny-phytoplankton-have-microbiomes/

In this article titled ¨Eating turkeys does not really make you sleepy¨ it talks about how turkey might not be the only culprit for making you feel sleepy after a Thanksgiving dinner. It was widely believed that the reason people get drowsy after eating a turkey dinner was because of an amino acid called L-tryptophan which is present in turkey meat. It is true that turkey contains high levels of L-tryptophan but in reality it's no more than any other meat you may consume. If you really wanted to get sleepy on turkey you would need to eat it on an empty stomach and not ingest anything that had any other type of amino acids or protein in it. Because turkey is not the only thing you typically eat at a Thanksgiving dinner, researchers looked at the other things that are consumed in large amounts during a holiday dinner. It's common to consume dishes rich in carbohydrates. Research shows that in both animals and humans carbohydrate-rich meals trigger the pancreas to release insulin which helps break down and use sugar. Something else insulin does is stimulate the muscles to take in large of something called neutral branched-chain amino acids, this does not include tryptophan. Because the muscles are absorbing the neutral branched-chain amino acids there is more L-tryptophan than branched-chain amino acids present in the blood. This higher ratio of L-tryptophan eventually reaches the cerebral spinal fluid and the brain. The L-tryptophan is converted into serotonin in the brain and eventually metabolized by the pineal gland into melatonin. This is what's commonly referred to as in nature's sleeping pill and is responsible for making you feel drowsy. So in reality it's the turkey combined with large amounts of carbohydrates that might be responsible for making you drowsy. It is also common for people to consume large amounts of alcohol during Thanksgiving which is known to make you drowsy as well. 

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eating-turkey-sleepy-thanksgiving/

In this article titled ¨A butterfly's brilliant blue wings lead to less toxic paint¨ talks about something called structural colour that is present in morpho butterfly wings. What structural colour is is a material that has a very unique texture to it. The physical shape of a surface can act like prisms and reflect light to create a stunning color. Morpho butterflies have intricate nanoscale protein structures that are layered on top of each other that create prisms that create a beautiful cerulean colour. Researchers hope to use structural colour to make paints without the use of dyes and pigments. Certain pigments used today can be harmful to our health and also the environment. The way pigments and dyes work is by absorbing all wavelengths of light except for the colour that we see, which is being reflected back into our eyes. A dye that is used to make things red has been linked to cancer and some countries have even banned this pigment. There are many things in nature that use structural colour, including a plant in Africa that have berries called marble berries which have a metallic blue hue to them. A research group at CalTech uses something called self-assembling block copolymers. In short, these long chains of molecules can arrange themselves in a specific pattern and structure to reflect a certain light. When the structural colorant is added to a solution and applied to a surface they rearrange themselves to create the desired colour. Shorter copolymer chains refract shorter wavelengths of light like blue and green, while longer chains refract longer wavelengths of light such as red and orange. One good thing about the self-assembling copolymers is they self-assemble under everyday conditions. This new type of colour is in powder form and could be added into paint for cars, nail polish or wall paint. Because of the unique properties of this colorant, there are a lot of chemical additives that will no longer be needed when creating paint such as a stabilizer and surfactant. This results in safer paint. There's still much testing to be done before these types of paint can be used in everyday life. It is still needed to be confirmed if the colorants are actually safer and more environmentally friendly than traditional dyes and pigments. As of yet they are more expensive than traditional paint.

https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/a-butterflys-brilliant-blue-wings-lead-to-less-toxic-paint/